Title: Review on Chronic Kidney Disease: Its Risk Factors and Treatment

Authors: C. Nithish, G. Ajith Kumar, Dr R. Dinesh, Saba Afia

 DOI:  https://dx.doi.org/10.18535/jmscr/v6i2.69

Abstract

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a life threatening condition characterized by progressive and irreversible loss of renal function. CKD is a precursor to end-stage renal disease, is associated with increased risk of morbidity and mortality. Over 10% of Indian population are suffering with CKD. Risk factors of CKD includes Age, Diabetes, Hypertension, smoking, Alcohol, Obesity. We can stop the progress of the disease by proper choice of Reno-protective combinations and should make patient to adhere to the medication for better outcomes.

Keywords: Chronic kidney disease, Risk factors, ACE Inhibitors, ARB`s, Disease progression.

References

  1. Kidneys: Facts, Function & Diseases: Alina Bradford Live Science June 8,2016
  2. O'Hare AM, Choi AI, Bertenthal D, Bacchetti P, Garg AX, Kaufman JS, et al. age affects outcomes in chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007 Oct. 18(10):2758-65. 
  3. Pathophysiology of hypertension in renal failure: saleem MM
  4. 10% of the Indian population suffers from chronic kidney diseases [online]2013 [2013 Mar][4.1] Kidney disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group. KDIGO 2012 Clinical Practice Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Kidney Disease. Kidney int.Suppl.2013, 3:1-150
  1. Ejerblad E, Michael Fored C, Lindblad P et al. Obesity and risk for chronicrenal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006; 17: 1695–1702
  2. Bleyer AJ, Shemanski LR, Burke GL et al. Tobacco, hypertension, and vascular disease: risk factors for renal functional decline in an older population. Kidney Int 2000; 57: 2072–2079.
  3. Cigarette Smoking and Nephrolitiasis in Adult Individuals Mohammad Reza Tamadon, Mohammad Nassaji, and Raheb Ghorbani
  4. Shang W, Li L, Ren Y, et al. History of kidney stones and risk of chronic kidney disease: a meta-analysis. Knight J, ed.  Peer J. 2017;5:e2907. doi:10.7717/peerj.2907.
  5. Yacoub R, Habib H, Lahdo A, et al. Association between smoking and chronic kidney disease: a case control study. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:731. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-731.
  6. Liebman SE, Lamontagne SP, Huang L-S, Messing S, Bushinsky DA. Smoking in Dialysis Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Mortality and Cardiovascular Morbidity. American journal of kidney diseases : the official journal of the National Kidney Foundation. 2011;58(2):257-265. doi:10.1053/j.ajkd.2011.03.025.
  7. https://bmcnephrol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2369-14-254Alcohol consumption is inversely associated with stage 3 chronic kidney disease in middle-aged Taiwanese men-Yueh-Han Hsu et al,BMC Nephrology
  8. Risk of end-stage renal disease associated with alcohol consumption. Perneger TV1, Whelton PK, Puddey IB, Klag MJ. Am J Epidemiol. 1999 Dec     15;150(12):1275-81
  9. Kaveeshwar SA, Cornwall J. The current state of diabetes mellitus in India. AMJ 2014, 7, 1, 45-48. http//dx.doi.org/10.4066/AMJ.2014.1979
  10. 7 April 2016 - World Health Day
  1. Risk factors for chronic kidney disease: an update Rumeyza Kazanciog.
  2. Risk factors for chronic kidney disease: an update Rumeyza Kazanciog.
  3. Garg AX, Papaioannou A, Ferko N, Campbell G, Clarke JA, Ray JG: Estimating the prevalence of renal insufficiency in seniors requiring long-term care. Kidney Int65 : 649 –653, 2004
  4. O'Hare AM, Bertenthal D, Covinsky KE, Landefeld CS, Sen S, Mehta K, Steinman MA, Borzecki A, Walter LC: Mortality risk stratification in chronic kidney disease: One size for all ages? J Am Soc Nephrol17 : 846 –853, 2006
  5. Falodia J, Singla MK. CKD epidemiology and risk factors. Clin Queries Nephrol 2012; 1: 249–252.
  6. Neugarten, g.gallo, s.silbiger, et al. Glomerulosclerosis in aging humans is not influenced by gender Am J kidney Dis,34(1999),pp.884-888.
  7. Iseki K. Factors influencing the development of end-stage renal disease. Clin Exp Nephrol 2005; 9: 5–14.
  8. Risk factors for chronic kidney disease in a community based population:a 10years followup study k. yamagata, A.Koyama Kidney international volume 71, issue 2, 2 january, pages 159-166
  9. Diabetes Mellitus and Hypertension: Key Risk Factors For Kidney Disease Janice P. Lea, MD, and Susanne B. Nicholas, MD, PhD
  10. Langstan JB, Guyton AC, Douglas BH,Dorsett PE,Russel A,McCaa RE.Effect of changes in salt intake on arterial pressure and renal function in partially nephrectomised dogs.Circ Res.1963,12:508-513.
  11. Ying WZ,sanders PW. Dietary salt modulates renal production of transfor-ming growth factor-beta in rats. Am J Physiol. 1998;274(4 Pt 2):F635-F641.
  12. Fellner RC.Cook AK,o`connor PM, Zhand S,Pollock DM,Insho EW.High saltdiet blunts the auto regulation by a oxygen species-dependent mechanism.Am J physiol Renal physiol 2014;307(1):F33-F40.
  13. Treatment of chronic kidney disease. Turner JM Kidney Int. 2012 Feb;81(4):351-62. doi:  1038/ki.2011.380. Epub 2011 Dec 1
  14. Rationale for combination angiotensin receptor blocker and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor treatment and end-organ protection in patients with chronic kidney disease. Toto R, Palmer BF. Am J Nephrol. 2008; 28(3):372-80. Epub 2007 Dec 12
  15. Use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in patients with heart failure and renal insufficiency: how concerned should we be by the rise in serum creatinine? Ahmed A. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002 Jul; 50(7):1297-300
  16. Renoprotective effect of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockade in patients with predialysis advanced chronic kidney disease, hypertension, and anemia.Hsu TW, Liu JS, Hung SC, Kuo KL, Chang YK, Chen YC, Hsu CC, Tarng DC.JAMA Intern Med. 2014 Mar; 174(3):347-54
  17. Add-on Protective Effect of Pentoxifylline in Advanced Chronic Kidney Disease Treated with Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Blockade - A Nationwide Database Analysis.Kuo KL, Hung SC, Liu JS, Chang YK, Hsu CC, Tarng DC.Sci Rep. 2015 Nov 27; 5:17150. Epub 2015 Nov 27.
  18. The case for combining angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and calcium-channel blockers. Taylor AA, Sunthornyothin S.Curr Hypertens Rep. 1999 Oct; 1(5):446-53.
  19. Heaney RP. vitamin d heaalth and disease. clin J Am Soc NEPHROL.2008;3(5):1535-1542.
  20. Li YC. Reno protective effects of vitamin d analogs. Kidney Int . 2009 may 27;[Epub ahead of print
  21. Jones G. Expanding role for vitamin D in chronic kidney disease: importance of blood 25-OH-D levels and extra-renal 1alpha-hydroxylase in the classical and nonclassical actions of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D Seminars in dialysis.2007;20(4):316-324
  22. Atkinson MA: Anemia in chronic kidney disease Pediatr Nephrol.2017 Apr 15. doi: 10.1007/s00467-017-3663-y. [Epub ahead of print].
  23. Iron-based phosphate binders: a paradigm shift in the treatment of hyperphosphatemic anemic CKD patients? Locatelli FJ Nephrol. 2017 Jul 17. doi: 10.1007/s40620-017-0421-y.

Corresponding Author

C Nithish

Department of Clinical Pharmacy Practice,

Vaageswari College of Pharmacy